Is the Doughnut Economics Model an Effective Blueprint for Achieving SDG 11’s Vision of Sustainable Cities and Communities? Case Study of Amsterdam

This article is part of our collaboration with International Policy Review at IE University. Photo Credits: Innovation News Network.

Abstract

The Doughnut Economics model has emerged as a tool for achieving sustainable development that minimises the negative environmental impact and maximises social benefits. This article explores its efficiency as a blueprint for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11), using the case study of Amsterdam’s Circular 2020-2025 Strategy. Amsterdam has integrated Doughnut Economics into its several policies to create a circular economy that minimises waste, optimises resource use and boosts social equity. The study critically assesses the effectiveness of the Strategy and identifies its benefits and drawbacks regarding SDG 11. Subsequently, it adopts an international perspective and looks at how Doughnut Economics can be implemented globally, particularly in developing countries. By evaluating the strengths, weaknesses and potential modifications to Doughnut Economics, the article contributes to the debate on sustainable urban development and discusses its practical applications across diverse contexts.

1. Introduction

1.1 Sustainable Development

The concept of sustainable development emerged in response to a misleading narrative which considers maintaining uninterrupted economic growth as the main objective of governments worldwide. Sustainable development recognises the balance between economic growth, human needs and the environment. The term was first developed in April 1987 in the report ‘Our Common Future’, which was produced by the World Commission on Environment and Development, also known as the Brundtland Commission. This body was established in 1983 with the approval of the then Secretary-General of the United Nations by Gro Harlem Brundtland, who left a significant mark on Norwegian history, having served as the Prime Minister for three terms. The main conclusion of the report was that economic growth cannot remain stable as a result of intense ecological degradation and increasing scarcity of natural resources, the quality of which is also significantly declining.

In the aforementioned report, the Brundtland Commission proposes a solution to these problems, which is to be sustainable development, defined as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. As a multidimensional concept that embraces a long-term perspective, sustainable development is pursued across three key areas:

• economic dimension – maintaining steady and stable economic growth that does not compromise environmental sustainability;
• social dimension – seeking to improve the quality of life by, among other things, increasing access to healthy food options, safe drinking water and clean energy sources;
• environmental dimension – protecting natural resources and strengthening the ecosystem’s capacity to regenerate.

With the publication of the ‘Our Common Future’ report, sustainable development has enriched public debate while building a bridge between the three domains of human life – between economic growth, social progress and environmental protection.

Undoubtedly, a significant event that paved the way for the integration of sustainable development into government policies and business strategies was the introduction of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This strategy was adopted at the United Nations Summit in New York in September 2015, which includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 associated targets. They encompass a wide range of issues, including poverty eradication, education improvement, infrastructure development and climate action. These Goals, based on the Millennium Development Goals implemented between 2000 and 2015, aim to improve global well-being, with a particular focus on developing countries.

1.2 Sustainable Development Goal 11

Among the broad group of Sustainable Development Goals and associated targets, it is worth taking a closer look at Goal 11 – ‘Sustainable Cities and Communities’ (SDG 11). As the United Nations states, its main objective is to ‘make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’. SDG 11 includes 10 targets that address specific aspects of urban sustainability, including but not limited to such areas as affordable and safe housing, protection of cultural heritage, sustainable transport and waste management. 

SDG 11 addresses the complex and highly relevant issue of urbanisation, defined as the rising share of a region’s or country’s population living in urban areas. The question of how to manage this phenomenon is particularly important when one considers that cities consume 80% of natural resources available worldwide, generate 50% of global waste and are responsible for 75% of total greenhouse gas emissions. However, as cities generate 80% of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP), there is an enormous need to balance their ecological footprint with their economic power.

It is estimated that nowadays, around 4.4 billion people live in urban areas, which accounts for more than 50% of the total world population. This includes those living in megacities with populations over ten million, as well as residents of medium-sized cities and towns. By 2050, the urbanisation rate is expected to reach 68%, which explains the necessity to embrace a long-term perspective in local urban development policies.

1.3 Doughnut Economics

Local and national authorities around the world utilise different tools and adopt various policies aimed at helping local populations cope with the rapid growth of urban areas. This article explores an innovative approach to sustainable development proposed by the British economist Kate Raworth: Doughnut Economics.

Kate Raworth introduced her idea in an Oxfam report in 2012, in which she identified key boundaries that humankind needs to respect to secure its future and thrive both economically and socially. Five years later, she published a book called ‘Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st-Century Economist’, which allowed her concept to gain international recognition.

As the name suggests, the concept can be illustrated as a doughnut (see Figure 1). Its outer ring refers to the ecological ceiling – a graphical representation of nine planetary boundaries that must not be exceeded in order to avoid ‘causing unacceptable environmental change’. These nine boundaries include:

• climate change,
• ocean acidification,
• chemical pollution,
• nitrogen & phosphorus loading,
• freshwater withdrawals,
• land conversion,
• biodiversity loss,
• air pollution,
• ozone layer depletion.

In the context of Sustainable Development Goal 11, the most relevant planetary boundary is likely to be land conversion, which can be driven by the process of urbanisation. This link explains why human settlements should be designed in a way that maintains the regenerative capacity of ecosystems – an essential element of the health of Earth systems.

In addition to these planetary boundaries, Raworth also defines a social foundation, which refers to aspects such as human rights, social equity and safe access to food, energy and water. Consequently, this social foundation creates an inner boundary, which, in Raworth’s view, sustainable development should be based on.

Figure 1: Doughnut Economics model

Source: Raworth, Doughnut Economics, (2017).

As illustrated in Figure 1, the space between the social foundation and the ecological ceiling takes the form of a doughnut – hence the name. Raworth argues that by remaining within this space, humankind can sustain an ‘ecologically safe and socially just’ reality in which people are able to thrive. Doughnut Economics fundamentally challenges the notion that endless economic growth should remain the primary goal. Instead, Raworth advocates for a more nuanced understanding of human development – one that recognises the interconnected nature of the economic, social and environmental factors shaping people’s lives.

It is also worth distinguishing between Doughnut Economics and the concept of a circular economy, which itself emerged as a response to the linear economic model – one that follows a take-make-waste approach. In contrast, a circular economy aims to eliminate resource waste completely. According to this model, products should be durable, repairable and recyclable. Materials are continuously recovered to maximise resource efficiency and reduce the need for new raw materials in production – a process that, over time, helps slow environmental degradation. While Doughnut Economics builds on circular economy principles, it also expands them by incorporating a social dimension that, as shown before, is one of the three key areas in which sustainable development is pursued.

1.3.1 Link between SDG 11 and Doughnut Economics

Being a framework for sustainable development at its core, Doughnut Economics can be considered a tool for achieving SDG 11. It promotes urban planning that involves regenerative and inclusive development. It puts an emphasis on minimising waste, limiting pollution and reducing over-consumption that all threaten the sustainability of urban areas. These objectives are strongly linked to SDG 11; specifically, Target 11.6 addresses the need to reduce ‘the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities,’ which is estimated based on the share of total waste that is safely managed and on the level of fine particulate matter, which is an indicator of air pollution.

Doughnut Economics focuses on maintaining a balance between social and ecological issues. When applied at the urban level, it can help reduce the ecological footprint by addressing challenges such as overconsumption of raw materials, air pollution and food waste.

1.4 Aim of the article

The purpose of this article is to answer the following research question: Is the Doughnut Economics model an effective blueprint for achieving SDG 11’s vision of sustainable cities and communities?

To explore this question, the author conducts a critical analysis of the case study of Amsterdam, which integrated Doughnut Economics into its climate action plan. The article then adopts an international perspective, examining the extent to which the model may be applicable in countries with varying technological capacities and sociopolitical contexts – with particular attention to developing countries. 

2. Case study of Amsterdam

Many cities attempt to integrate the Doughnut Economics model to facilitate the transition to a green local economy while promoting economic growth and improving the citizens’ well-being. This article takes a closer look at Amsterdam, the capital of the Netherlands, which, since 2020, has been integrating Doughnut Economics into its local policies.

2.1 Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy

The Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy can be considered a key component of Amsterdam’s plan concerning sustainable development. It was adopted in May 2020 by the municipal executive and the city council, and since then, it has been significantly contributing to Amsterdam’s progress towards achieving SDG 11. The Strategy provides a general framework aimed at transforming Amsterdam’s economy into a fully circular one by 2050. In the  shorter term, it sets a goal to reduce the use of new abiotic raw materials by 50% by 2030.

This objective is closely linked to Target 11.6 of SDG 11, which addresses resource efficiency and the reduction of ‘the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities.’

The Strategy is being implemented across three key areas, carefully selected for their significant contribution to Amsterdam’s ecological footprint:

• food and organic waste streams;
• consumer goods;
• built environment.

While the strategy may appear at first glance to focus solely on the environmental dimension of sustainable development, at its core, it also seeks to promote social justice by ensuring equity and prosperity for all social groups living in Amsterdam.

2.1.1 The Circular Economy Monitor

A key element of the Strategy is its measurement tool, known as the Circular Economy Monitor. It was designed by Amsterdam’s Research and Statistics department and the Chief Technology Office, with the support of  partners like TNO, GeoFluxus and Statistics Netherlands. The Monitor takes the form of a live database that tracks the flow of materials through the city and is still under development. Launched in February 2022, it initially included data from the period 2015-2019. However, additional data is now being added on an ongoing basis.

The database has generated several reports offering insight into the challenges facing Amsterdam. In 2019, it was calculated that sustaining the city’s economy required 73.4 billion kilograms of material. To put this figure into perspective, it is important to note that Amsterdam’s economy accounts for 18% of the materials used in the Dutch economy. Besides, 63% of the city’s total carbon dioxide emissions result from material consumption within the city, indicating that local policy interventions could significantly improve the current situation of Amsterdam.

Furthermore, it is estimated that 70% of the total material use in Amsterdam ‘involves primary, abiotic raw materials.’ Abiotic factors refer to non-living components of ecosystems, such as water and concrete. The Strategy addresses this issue through two key focus areas: consumer goods and the built environment. In fact, to meet the city’s emission reduction targets, Amsterdam would need to decrease its consumption of primary abiotic materials by 2.3 billion kilograms per year, starting from 2019.

Moreover, in 2023, the built environment was responsible for 30% of Amsterdam’s greenhouse gas emissions. Between 2013 and 2018, only 40% of the construction and demolition waste ‘was broken into smaller pieces and then further processed as secondary waste’ in the Metropolitan Region of Amsterdam. Together, these figures underscore the urgent need for an ambitious plan if Amsterdam wishes to achieve a fully circular economy by 2050.

The Circular Economy Monitor also highlights important trends related to food and organic waste streams. Generally, in the Netherlands, up to 20% of food is wasted. In Amsterdam alone, annual consumption of meat and dairy products amounts to 165 kilotonnes. Moreover, food, along with agricultural and horticultural products, accounts for approximately 17% of the city’s total material consumption. However, as these materials are biotic, they are not part of the Strategy’s reduction target, which focuses specifically on decreasing the use of abiotic materials by half.

Food and organic waste streams can play a crucial role in helping Amsterdam achieve its sustainable targets. It has been estimated that a 20% increase in the number of people following a plant-based diet could reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 16% by 2030. Furthermore, halving food waste could lead to an additional 7% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.

As demonstrated across the Strategy’s, there is a huge potential to transform Amsterdam’s economy in line with the principles of Doughnut Economics. Bearing these figures in mind, it is now worth taking a closer look at how the policy is being implemented.

2.2 Policy analysis

As the Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy is still in the process of being implemented, studies evaluating its effectiveness remain limited. Nonetheless, some preliminary conclusions can already be drawn.

2.2.1 Strengths

One of the most significant benefits associated with the adoption of Doughnut Economics is the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. According to the city’s Climate Report published in 2023, carbon dioxide emissions fell to approximately 3,760 kilotonnes in 2022 –  a 6% decrease compared to 2021. According to CE Delft, an independent research and consultancy organisation, emissions are expected to decline further to 3,590 kt in 2025 – representing a 6% reduction compared to 1990 levels. In addition, ‘if all the current policy plans are fully implemented in time, emissions could fall to 1,980 kt by 2030, a 48% reduction compared to 1990’. This trend suggests that Amsterdam’s efforts are contributing to a reduction in its ecological footprint, thereby advancing progress towards achieving SDG 11, particularly Target 11.6. However, the calculations behind these figures were based on several climate-related programmes implemented in the city. It is therefore not possible to determine what proportion of this success can be attributed specifically to the Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy.

As part of the Strategy, Amsterdam has also introduced sustainability standards that must be met by contractors working on all city-owned buildings. These standards aim to establish a circular flow of materials within the built environment. For instance, developers wishing to build on Beach Island are required to maintain a materials passport. This enables the city to reuse components if the building is later dismantled, thereby reducing reliance on abiotic raw materials – the primary contributor to Amsterdam’s ecological footprint. 

Moreover, some progress has been observed in the area of food waste at the national level. According to the Netherlands Nutrition Centre Foundation, average per capita food waste in the Netherlands amounted to 33.4 kilograms in 2022 – a 23% reduction compared to 2015.

However, when only recent years are taken into account, the 2022 figure is just 1 kilogram lower than in 2019, which may indicate a drawback of the Strategy in improving the local situation.

Although the following effects have not yet been studied empirically, they are likely to be relevant in the context of Amsterdam. By adhering to the principles of Doughnut Economics and operating within the ‘doughnut’, the city is likely to have reduced its reliance on raw materials. As processing new materials requires a large energy input and generates waste, this reduced dependency positively contributes to Amsterdam’s ecological balance. This outcome also aligns with Target 11.3 of SDG 11, which promotes ‘inclusive and sustainable urbanisation,’ as one of its indicators concerns the land consumption rate and associated use of natural resources.

Since setting its target to become a fully circular economy, Amsterdam has placed a particular emphasis on increasing ‘the number of local craft centres for repair and restoration of products.’ In addition to its obvious environmental benefits, this initiative may also lead to the emergence of more jobs in the circular economy sectors, such as repairing and recycling. As reliance on new products declines, demand for more accessible repair and recycling services grows, with the potential to generate new employment opportunities and foster greater social inclusion.

Lastly, Amsterdam was a finalist in the 2022 Earthshot Prize in the Waste-Free World category. This recognition can imply that the city’s strategy, based on the Doughnut Economics model, has gained international visibility as an effective and successful contribution to the vision of sustainable cities and communities.

2.2.2 Weaknesses and drawbacks

While the strategy presents an ambitious and forward-looking framework, several weaknesses and limitations remain. Amsterdam’s overall material consumption continues to rise. This trend suggests that the efforts to reduce consumption have not been sufficient. What is even more concerning is that the impact of recent circular economy initiatives is expected to be lowest in the built environment sector. Although it accounts for 30% of Amsterdam’s greenhouse gas emissions, it is projected to experience the smallest decline in carbon emissions by 2030. 

The Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy has also been criticised for overemphasising economic growth while not accounting for the social components of Doughnut Economics. According to the study conducted by researchers from Utrecht University, Amsterdam is currently unable to improve societal relations within the city. The Strategy does not involve any measures to redistribute wealth or power; instead, the status quo, in which one social group continues to exploit the natural resources, is maintained. As a result, the levels of wealth inequality remain high, and the environmental damage is not significantly reduced, placing further strain on a city that does not yet operate within the doughnut.

Some criticism has also been attributed to the lack of research on the effects of the implementation of the circular economy model in urban areas. It is argued that predicting the consequences of initiatives aimed at transitioning to a circular economy is difficult, if not impossible. There are many factors at play, and the Doughnut Economics model itself encompasses a wide range of interconnected issues. Nonetheless, Amsterdam appears to acknowledge the high degree of uncertainty associated with its ambitious plans, as it emphasises a ‘learning by doing’ approach. Even so, both the ethical implications and the effectiveness of this notion may be questioned: if outcomes cannot be anticipated, the Strategy risks exacerbating existing problems rather than resolving them.

Another issue is the need to provide retraining and upskilling programmes for current workers to enable them to find employment in the circular economy industries. Practices such as sustainable construction, high-grade recycling and repair are expected to play an increasingly important role as the city progresses towards its targets. However, these practices require specialised knowledge that many workers currently employed in environmentally harmful industries may not possess. According to the Circular Economy Monitor, Amsterdam needs to increase its efforts in these sectors to ensure long-term efficiency of its economy based on Doughnut Economics.

Not only are retraining and upskilling programmes needed, but also it is the city’s responsibility to support the increase of circular jobs. Currently, the share of circular jobs within the overall labour market is slowly increasing. Since 2010, it has increased by 0.8 percentage points, reaching approximately 6.6% of  total employment. This increase is considered too slow to achieve Amsterdam’s targets. While the proportion of vacancies in circular jobs has risen, currently standing at around 10%, it remains impossible to determine ‘how much of an increase in the number of circular jobs this will ultimately bring about.’

Nonetheless, a recent survey conducted by the authorities in 2022 shows that Amsterdam’s residents express strong support for the city’s initiatives that serve as the basis of the circular transition. This suggests that they are aware of the potential benefits of programmes such as the Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy, which may contribute to social equity and enhance economic inclusion.

3. Global Context

The previous section aimed to critically assess the Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy. The question that now arises is whether Doughnut Economics can be applied in other cities across the globe to support progress towards SDG 11, or whether it remains a model tailored solely to the context of developed countries.

3.1 Barriers

One of the main challenges to implementing Doughnut Economics lies in the prevailing global narrative that equates development with continuous economic growth. For many political leaders, increasing Gross Domestic Product (GDP) remains a top priority. Given the central role that urban areas play in generating GDP, both local and national authorities may view Doughnut Economics with scepticism, particularly because its approach to sustainable development can entail a short-term slowdown in economic growth. This factor may risk undermining the model’s effectiveness, especially if economic priorities are placed above maintaining the social foundation essential to Raworth’s framework. 

In addition, developing countries are more likely to face challenges due to inadequate regulatory frameworks particularly in areas such as waste management and environmental protection. World Bank estimates that in low-income countries, more than 90% of generated waste is disposed of in unregulated dumps or burned,showcasing insufficient governmental efforts to curb these practices. Without clear action plans supported by accountability mechanisms, the risk of an ineffective Doughnut Economics framework remains high. 

As was the case with Amsterdam, transitioning to a circular economy requires upskilling and retraining programmes. However, in developing countries, where the circular industries are not yet well established in the private sector or widely recognised by local populations, such programmes will demand even greater public investment to incentivise people to seek employment in these emerging sectors that promote sustainable development.

Lastly, a major barrier, not faced by developed countries such as the Netherlands, is the rapidly growing urban population. This pace can be illustrated by the number of existing and emerging megacities, the majority of which are located in developing countries that consequently experience the most adverse effects of rapid urbanisation. According to Statista, among the 33 megacities in 2023, as many as 25 were situated in developing countries. It is difficult to apply the case of Amsterdam, home to 918,117 people in 2023, to the context of a megacity with a population exceeding 10 million. The phenomenon of rapid urbanisation significantly influences governments’ prioritisation of policy areas. As a result, Doughnut Economics may prove to be an ill-suited solution, unlikely to yield efficient and long-lasting outcomes in such vastly different contexts.

3.2 Possible Adaptations

Despite the potential barriers to implementing Doughnut Economics in developing countries, some cities show that adopting Raworth’s idea can still generate benefits for local populations. These practices also hold important implications for SDG 11, as Doughnut Economics offers a framework for promoting the principles of sustainable development.

Doughnut Economics may positively impact employment as it generates green job opportunities, as seen in Amsterdam. However, a vast share of economic activity in developing countries is attributed to the informal sector – it is estimated that 70% of total employment and 33% of GDP are found in the informal economy in EMDEs (Emerging Market and Developing Economies). Rather than marginalising this sector,  governments could integrate informal workers into formal sustainability programmes, such as the ones related to waste management.

An effective example of this approach can be seen in Pune, India, where waste pickers have been successfully incorporated into the city’s formal recycling system. This initiative not only enhances workers’ purchasing power but also substantially reduces the city’s ecological footprint. One study showed that the combined efforts of Pune’s waste pickers ‘saved the municipality US$316,455 in municipal waste transport costs,’ underlining the significance of their work. As a result of this government-backed initiative, waste pickers in Pune now work fewer hours and earn ‘relatively more stable incomes than other waste pickers in India. This is due to the fact that the income of waste pickers in most Indian cities comes from the sales of their found recyclable materials. Consequently, the programme boosts economic inclusivity, contributing to the social foundation of Doughnut Economics and SDG 11, which promotes inclusive and sustainable urban development.

Furthermore, while Amsterdam benefits from an effective formal waste management system, this might not be the case in many developing countries. Nonetheless, rather than viewing this as a barrier to implementing Doughnut Economics, it could be seen as an opportunity to generate massive benefits for the local population.

Lagos, a megacity and the capital of Nigeria, is managing waste generated by over 20 million residents with an infrastructure designed in the 1970s for a population of 3 million. On average, approximately 9,000-10,000 metric tons of waste is generated daily. In 2020, it was calculated that less than 20% of waste had been collected through a formal system. Interestingly, this figure is lower than the World Bank’s estimate, which states that ‘Sub-Saharan Africa collects about 44 percent of waste’. In contrast, European and North American countries collect over 90% of the waste. All these figures point to the severity of the problem that Lagos is facing, driven by inadequate funding for waste collection and treatment, as well as an inadequate regulatory framework. However, the following example highlights the contribution of civil society groups to the inclusive and sustainable development of urban areas.

RecyclePoints, a social enterprise based in Lagos, was founded by Alison Ukonu and Chioma Ukonu in 2012. It encourages people to recycle by rewarding them with points for recyclable materials. The accumulation of a substantial number of points allows the participants to exchange them for household items or cash. This initiative incentivises people to promote sustainability in their local environment by discouraging unsafe waste disposal. This innovative start-up collects waste, processes and sells it to manufacturing and recycling plants. Its social impact becomes even more significant when considering that 80% of the 50 jobs created by RecyclePoints are held by women, a group that remains marginalised in the Nigerian labour market. This case study demonstrates that Doughnut Economics does not necessarily need to be implemented by the government to generate a positive social and environmental impact. It exemplifies a bottom-up approach, whereby the initiative of the local population helps to reduce Lagos’ ecological footprint while also boosting social and economic inclusion – both core elements of Doughnut Economics and SDG 11.

Lastly, instead of driving innovation and technological progress, Doughnut Economics can be adapted to prioritise basic needs. In developing countries, Raworth’s model can incorporate a dimension focused on improving safe access to water, sanitation and energy, in a way that minimises environmental impact and makes use of existing technologies. This directly aligns with Target 11.1 of SDG 11 that highlights the importance of expanding access to basic services.

For instance, in Dhaka, Bangladesh, the Water Supply and Sewerage Authority launched the Dhaka Sanitation Improvement Project in March 2020, which is anticipated to be completed by June 2025. The initiative is expected to provide ‘1,500,000 people with access to safely managed sanitation services’, which will help tackle widespread water pollution that hinders Dhaka’s ability to operate within the doughnut. It will also support the city’s progress towards achieving SDG 11, particularly as it targets low-income neighbourhoods and slums, where access to basic services is severely limited.

4. Conclusion

The implementation of Doughnut Economics in Amsterdam shows how economic prosperity can be redefined to account for long-term resilience and maximised social benefits. The Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy provides a good framework for sustainable urban development as its three key areas make a significant contribution to the ecological footprint, which the city is currently aiming to reduce.

Current evaluations of the Strategy based on Doughnut Economics imply that progress has been made towards enhancing sustainability, including a decline in greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, important drawbacks can also be identified, particularly the slow pace of material-use reduction and criticisms regarding the neglected social foundation.

To adopt Doughnut Economics on a global scale, careful modifications should be made to account for different institutional, economic, social and infrastructural contexts. The needs and capabilities of other cities, with an emphasis on urban areas in developing countries, differ substantially from Amsterdam’s context. For instance, while increasing access to sanitation will not be a part of the Doughnut Economics model in a developed country, it will be considered a priority in a developing country. Thus, it is important to recognise such differences and design a policy most effective within the specific context in which it is implemented.

4.1 Limitations and further research

It is necessary to re-examine the effectiveness of the Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy in a few years. This is because once the Amsterdam Circular 2020-2025 Strategy concludes, more statistical data should be available to the public, along with additional studies whose authors are experts in the field. Moreover, the study could be improved by assessing the impacts of other circular economy-related programmes launched in Amsterdam, such as the Implementation Agenda 2023-2026 and Roadmap Amsterdam Climate Neutral 2050. By adopting a holistic approach and evaluating all the government’s initiatives, a more complex context could be achieved.

Further research could focus on evaluating how different cities have adapted Doughnut Economics to their specific contexts, and how such adaptations have contributed to progress towards SDG 11. The article could have also examined alternative approaches to achieving SDG 11 as Doughnut Economics is only one of the many possible models. Maintaining this diversity would allow for a more meaningful exploration of the global context, recognising that different approaches may yield varying levels of success depending on the city.

5. Acknowledgements

The author is particularly grateful to Elene Jakhutashvili for her invaluable support, which greatly contributed to the development of this work. The author would also like to thank the Editorial Board and Officers of the International Policy Review and Sundial Press for providing the opportunity to write an article on such an important and globally relevant topic as Sustainable Development Goal 11.

6. List of figures

Figure 1: Doughnut Economics Model……………………… 4

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